Downloads
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7480/spool.2021.2.6058Keywords:
Mars, Renewable Energy, Airborne Wind Energy, Kite Power, Microgrid, Solar Energy, Photovoltaics, Space Systems EngineeringAbstract
Generating renewable energy on Mars is technologically challenging. Firstly, because, compared to Earth, key energy resources such as solar and wind are weak as a result of very low atmospheric pressure and low solar irradiation. Secondly, because of the harsh environmental conditions, the required high degree of automation, and the exceptional effort and cost involved in transporting material to the planet. Like on Earth, it is crucial to combine complementary resources for an effective renewable energy solution. In this work, we present the results of a design synthesis exercise, a 10 kW microgrid solution, based on a pumping kite power system and photovoltaic solar modules to power the construction and subsequent use of a Mars habitat. To buffer unavoidable energy fluctuations and balance seasonal and diurnal resource variations, the two energy systems are combined with a compressed gas storage system and lithium-sulphur batteries. The airborne wind energy solution was selected because of its low weight-to-wing-surface-area ratio, compact packing volume, and high capacity factor which enables it to endure strong dust storms in an airborne parking mode. The surface area of the membrane wing is 50 m2 and the mass of the entire system, including the kite control unit and ground station, is 290 kg. The performance of the microgrid was assessed by computational simulation using available resource data for a chosen deployment location on Mars. The projected costs of the system are €8.95 million, excluding transportation to Mars.
How to Cite
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Lora Ouroumova, Daan Witte, Bart Klootwijk, Esmée Terwindt, Francesca van Marion, Dmitrij Mordasov, Fernando Corte Vargas, Siri Heidweiller, Márton Géczi, Marcel Kempers, Roland Schmehl
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Plaudit
References
Anand, S., & Fernandes, B. G. (2010). Optimal voltage level for DC microgrids. IECON 2010 - 36th Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 3034–3039. https://doi.org/10.1109/IECON.2010.5674947
Barnard, A., Engler, S. T., & Binsted, K. (2019). Mars habitat power consumption constraints, prioritization, and optimization. Journal of Space Safety Engineering, 6(4), 256–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsse.2019.10.006
Basner, M., Dinges, D. F., Mollicone, D., Ecker, A., Jones, C. W., Hyder, E. C., Di Antonio, A., Savelev, I., Kan, K., Goel, N., Morukov, B. V., & Sutton, J. P. (2013). Mars 520-d mission simulation reveals protracted crew hypokinesis and alterations of sleep duration and timing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(7), 2635–2640. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1212646110
Bechtle, P., Schelbergen, M., Schmehl, R., Zillmann, U., & Watson, S. (2019). Airborne wind energy resource analysis. Renewable Energy, 141, 1103–1116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.03.118
Bier, H. et al (2019) Rhizome: Development of an Autarkic Design-to-Robotic-Production and -Operation System for Building Off-Earth Rhizomatic Habitats. 2nd stage proposal for an ESA ideas competition. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from http://cs.roboticbuilding.eu/index.php/Shared:2019Final
Bluck, J. (2001) Antarctic/Alaska-Like Wind Turbines Could be Used on Mars. NASA Ames News Item. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2001/01_72AR.html
Bosman, R., Reid, V., Vlasblom, M., & Smeets, P. (2013). Airborne Wind Energy Tethers with High-Modulus Polyethylene Fibers. In U. Ahrens, M. Diehl, & R. Schmehl (Eds.), Airborne Wind Energy (pp. 563–585). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_33
Boumis, R. (2017) The Average Wind Speed on Mars. Sciencing. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from http://sciencing.com/average-wind-speed-mars-3805.html
Breuer, J. C. M., & Luchsinger, R. H. (2010). Inflatable kites using the concept of Tensairity. Aerospace Science and Technology, 14(8), 557–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2010.04.009
Chen, A. (2014, May 14) EDL Engineering Constraints [Workshop presentation]. Mars 2020 1st Landing Site Workshop., Pasadena, CA, United States. https://marsnext.jpl.nasa.gov/workshops/2014_05/05_LSW1_EDL_Eng_Constraints_v6.pdf (
Chi, C., Lumba, R., Jung, Y. S., & Datta, A. (2020, November 16). Preliminary Structural Design and Aerodynamic Analysis of Mars Science Helicopter Rotors. ASCEND 2020. ASCEND 2020, Virtual Event. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2020-4025
Chuang, F.C., Crown, D.A. (2009) Geologic map of MTM 35337, 40337, and 45337 quadrangles, Deuteronilus Mensae region of Mars: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3079. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3079/
Corte Vargas, F., Géczi, M., Heidweiller, S., Kempers, M.X., Klootwijk, B.J., van Marion, F., Mordasov, D., Ouroumova, L.H., Terwindt, E.N., Witte, D. (2020) Arcadian Renewable Energy System: Renewable Energy for Mars Habitat [Technical report]. Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology. http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:93c343e5-ee79-4320-98a3-949d3e9c407d
Delgado-Bonal, A., Martín-Torres, F. J., Vázquez-Martín, S., & Zorzano, M.-P. (2016). Solar and wind exergy potentials for Mars. Energy, 102, 550–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.02.110
Deng, Y., Li, J., Li, T., Gao, X., & Yuan, C. (2017). Life cycle assessment of lithium sulfur battery for electric vehicles. Journal of Power Sources, 343, 284–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2017.01.036
Engler, S. (2017). Forecasting of Energy Requirements for Planetary Exploration Habitats Using a Modulated Neural Activation Method. https://doi.org/10.11575/PRISM/26208
Engler, S. T., Binsted, K., & Leung, H. (2019). HI-SEAS habitat energy requirements and forecasting. Acta Astronautica, 162, 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2019.05.049
Fechner, U. (2016). A Methodology for the Design of Kite-Power Control Systems [Delft University of Technology]. https://doi.org/10.4233/UUID:85EFAF4C-9DCE-4111-BC91-7171B9DA4B77
Fechner, U., & Schmehl, R. (2013). Model-Based Efficiency Analysis of Wind Power Conversion by a Pumping Kite Power System. In U. Ahrens, M. Diehl, & R. Schmehl (Eds.), Airborne Wind Energy (pp. 249–269). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_14
Fechner, U., & Schmehl, R. (2018). Flight Path Planning in a Turbulent Wind Environment. In R. Schmehl (Ed.), Airborne Wind Energy (pp. 361–390). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1947-0_15
Foust, J. (2017) SpaceX studying landing sites for Mars missions. Retrieved December 1, 2020 from https://spacenews.com/spacex-studying-landing-sites-for-mars-missions/
Fraser S.D. (2009). Power System Options for Mars Surface Exploration: Past, Present and Future. In: Badescu V. (ed) Mars: Prospective Energy and Material Resources. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-03629-3_1
Funde, A., & Shah, A. (2020). Solar Spectra. In A. Shah (Ed.), Solar Cells and Modules (Vol. 301, pp. 17–32). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46487-5_2
Haslach, H.W. Jr (1989) Wind Energy: a Resource for a Human Mission to Mars. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 42, pp. 171–178. http://www.researchgate.net/publication/252363322_Wind_Energy_a_Resource_for_a_Human_Mission_to_Mars
Head, J., Dickson, J., Mustard, J., Milliken, R., Scott, D., Johnson, B., Marchant, D., Levy, J., Kinch, K., Hvidberg, C., Forget, F., Boucher, D., Mikucki, J., Fastook, J., & Klaus, K. (2015, October 27-30) Mars Human Science Exploration and Resource Utilization: The Dichotomy Boundary Deuteronilus Mensae Exploration Zone [Workshop presentation]. First Landing Site/Exploration Zone Workshop for Human Missions to the Surface of Mars. Houston, Texas, United States. https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/explorationzone2015/pdf/1033.pdf
Holstein-Rathlou, C. (2018) Wind Turbine Power Production Under Current Martian Atmospheric Conditions. Mars Workshop on Amazonian Climate 2018 (LPIContrib.No.2086) https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/amazonian2018/pdf/4004.pdf
Horneck, G., Facius, R., Reichert, M., Rettberg, P., Seboldt, W., Manzey, D., Comet, B., Maillet, A., Preiss, H., Schauer, L., Dussap, C. G., Poughon, L., Belyavin, A., Reitz, G., Baumstark-Khan, C., & Gerzer, R. (2003). Humex, a study on the survivability and adaptation of humans to long-duration exploratory missions, part I: Lunar missions. Advances in Space Research, 31(11), 2389–2401. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00568-4
James, G., Chamitoff, G., Barker, D. (1998) Resource Utilization and Site Selection for a Self-Sufficient Martian Outpost”. NASA/TM-98-206538. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19980147990
Jehle, C., & Schmehl, R. (2014). Applied Tracking Control for Kite Power Systems. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 37(4), 1211–1222. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.62380
KiteX (2020) Windcatcher. Retrieved December 20, 2020 from http://kitex.tech/
Landis, G., & Hyatt, D. (2006). The Solar Spectrum on the Martian Surface and its Effect on Photovoltaic Performance. 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conference, 1979–1982. https://doi.org/10.1109/WCPEC.2006.279888
Luchsinger, R. H. (2013). Pumping Cycle Kite Power. In U. Ahrens, M. Diehl, & R. Schmehl (Eds.), Airborne Wind Energy (pp. 47–64). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_3
Mars Climate Database (2006) Martian Seasons and Solar Longitude. Retrieved March 22, 2021 from http://www-mars.lmd.jussieu.fr/mars/time/solar_longitude.html
Mersmann, K. (2015) The Fact and Fiction of Martian Dust Storms. NASA Goddard Feature. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/the-fact-and-fiction-of-martian-dust-storms
NASA (2020) Mars 2020 mission - For Scientists: Landing Site Selection. Retrieved May 11, 2020 from https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/science/for-scientists/landing-site-selection/
NASA (2020) Mars helicopter. Retrieved December 20, 2020 from https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/
Nelson, V. (2019). Innovative Wind Turbines: An Illustrated Guidebook (1st ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003010883
Plaut, J. J., Safaeinili, A., Holt, J. W., Phillips, R. J., Head, J. W., Seu, R., Putzig, N. E., & Frigeri, A. (2009). Radar evidence for ice in lobate debris aprons in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars: RADAR EVIDENCE FOR MID-LATITUDE MARS ICE. Geophysical Research Letters, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036379
Rapp, S., Schmehl, R., Oland, E., & Haas, T. (2019). Cascaded Pumping Cycle Control for Rigid Wing Airborne Wind Energy Systems. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 42(11), 2456–2473. https://doi.org/10.2514/1.G004246
Read, P. L., Lewis, S. R., & Mulholland, D. P. (2015). The physics of Martian weather and climate: A review. Reports on Progress in Physics, 78(12), 125901. https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/78/12/125901
Rummel, J. D., Beaty, D. W., Jones, M. A., Bakermans, C., Barlow, N. G., Boston, P. J., Chevrier, V. F., Clark, B. C., de Vera, J.-P. P., Gough, R. V., Hallsworth, J. E., Head, J. W., Hipkin, V. J., Kieft, T. L., McEwen, A. S., Mellon, M. T., Mikucki, J. A., Nicholson, W. L., Omelon, C. R., … Wray, J. J. (2014). A New Analysis of Mars “Special Regions”: Findings of the Second MEPAG Special Regions Science Analysis Group (SR-SAG2). Astrobiology, 14(11), 887–968. https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2014.1227
Schelbergen, M., & Schmehl, R. (2020). Validation of the quasi-steady performance model for pumping airborne wind energy systems. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1618, 032003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1618/3/032003
Schmehl, R. (2019) Airborne Wind Energy - An introduction to an emerging technology. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from http://www.awesco.eu/awe-explained/
Silberg, B. (2012) Electricity in the air. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory News Item. Retrieved May 14, 2020 from https://climate.nasa.gov/news/727/electricity-in-the-air
van der Vlugt, R., Bley, A., Noom, M., & Schmehl, R. (2019). Quasi-steady model of a pumping kite power system. Renewable Energy, 131, 83–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.07.023
van der Vlugt, R., Peschel, J., & Schmehl, R. (2013). Design and Experimental Characterization of a Pumping Kite Power System. In U. Ahrens, M. Diehl, & R. Schmehl (Eds.), Airborne Wind Energy (pp. 403–425). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39965-7_23
Vermillion, C., Cobb, M., Fagiano, L., Leuthold, R., Diehl, M., Smith, R. S., Wood, T. A., Rapp, S., Schmehl, R., Olinger, D., & Demetriou, M. (2021). Electricity in the air: Insights from two decades of advanced control research and experimental flight testing of airborne wind energy systems. Annual Reviews in Control, S1367578821000109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2021.03.002
Viúdez‐Moreiras, D., Newman, C. E., Forget, F., Lemmon, M., Banfield, D., Spiga, A., Lepinette, A., Rodriguez‐Manfredi, J. A., Gómez‐Elvira, J., Pla‐García, J., Muller, N., Grott, M., & the TWINS/InSight team. (2020). Effects of a Large Dust Storm in the Near‐Surface Atmosphere as Measured by InSight in Elysium Planitia, Mars. Comparison With Contemporaneous Measurements by Mars Science Laboratory. Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 125(9). https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JE006493
Wertz, J.R., Larson, W.J. (1999) Space Mission Analysis and Design. Space Technology Library, (Vol. 8., 4th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-0-7923-5901-2
Williams, D.R. (2020) Mars fact sheet. Retrieved November 24, 2020 from https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/marsfact.html
Zhou, S., Yang, H., Chen, C., Zhang, J., & Wang, W. (2019) Transparent dust removal coatings for solar cell on mars and its Anti-dust mechanism. Progress in Organic Coatings, 134, 312–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.05.028
